⚕️ Educational information only — not medical advice. Read the full disclaimer

Nightshades and Arthritis: Do They Really Cause Inflammation?

Tomatoes, potatoes, peppers and eggplant are some of the most widely eaten vegetables in the world, and also some of the most suspected by people with joint pain. The idea that nightshades worsen arthritis has circulated for about fifty years, and many people say cutting them out helped. Mainstream rheumatology says the evidence is not there. This page lays out both sides honestly: what nightshades and their glycoalkaloids are, the mechanisms that have been proposed, where the claim came from, what human studies actually show, what you give up nutritionally by avoiding them, and how to run a fair personal test if you want to find out for yourself.

Important: This page is general educational information, not medical advice. Diet changes are not a replacement for diagnosis or treatment of arthritis. Talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian before starting an elimination diet, especially if you are underweight, pregnant, have a history of disordered eating, or have kidney disease (which changes how much potassium you should eat). Never stop or change a prescribed medication because of a diet experiment; talk to your doctor or pharmacist first.

Key takeaways

  • There is no good human evidence that nightshades cause arthritis, and no published randomized trial (as of October 2026) showing that avoiding them improves it. Contested
  • Glycoalkaloids (solanine, chaconine) damaged the gut barrier in mice bred to develop bowel inflammation, but not in normal mice; whether this matters for human joints is unknown. Emerging
  • The claim traces largely to self-selected survey reports collected by horticulturist Norman Childers from the 1970s to the 1990s, with no control group. Contested
  • Small trials link tomato juice and pigmented potatoes to lower levels of some inflammatory markers, and the tomato-rich Mediterranean diet is the best-supported eating pattern in rheumatoid arthritis. Emerging
  • A minority of people may genuinely react. A 3–4 week elimination plus one-at-a-time reintroduction, tracked in a diary, is the fair way to find out. Contested
  • Green or sprouted potatoes really can make you ill: throw them away. Strong

What nightshades are (and are not) Strong

"Nightshades" is the everyday name for the Solanaceae plant family, which has roughly 2,000–2,500 species. Alongside familiar foods it includes tobacco, petunias and toxic wild plants such as deadly nightshade, which is where the family's frightening reputation comes from. Many medicines, including atropine, were originally derived from the family.12 Botanical family membership, though, says nothing about whether a food is harmful: the edible members are ordinary, nutritious staples.

Nightshades

  • Tomatoes (all kinds, plus ketchup, passata, salsa and tomato paste) and tomatillos
  • White, red, yellow and purple potatoes (and potato starch or flour)
  • Eggplant (aubergine)
  • Bell peppers and chili peppers, including paprika, cayenne, chili powder, chili flakes, hot sauce and pimento
  • Goji berries (wolfberries)
  • Ashwagandha, a popular supplement herb

Not nightshades (common mix-ups)

  • Sweet potatoes and yams: sweet potato is in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae)
  • Black and white pepper (peppercorns): pepper family (Piperaceae)
  • Mushrooms, onions, garlic, zucchini and cucumber
Hidden sources: If you test an elimination, read labels. Paprika and chili turn up in spice blends, sausages, chips and "natural flavors"; potato starch is used to thicken soups, sauces and gluten-free baking; and tomato is in most barbecue sauces and many curries. Ashwagandha appears in "adaptogen" supplements.

Glycoalkaloids and the proposed mechanisms Emerging Contested

Nightshades make steroidal glycoalkaloids as a natural pesticide against insects and fungi. The main ones in food are α-solanine and α-chaconine in potatoes, α-tomatine in tomatoes and solasonine and solamargine in eggplant.26 Tomatine is concentrated in green, unripe fruit: in one analysis it fell from about 361 mg to under 14 mg per 100 g as tomatoes ripened to red.27 In potatoes they concentrate in the peel, sprouts and any green, damaged or light-exposed parts; the green color itself is chlorophyll, but it signals that glycoalkaloids have likely risen too.3 Three main ways these compounds might matter have been proposed.

1. Gut barrier disruption (animal and cell studies)

Mechanism: membrane disruption and "leaky gut"

Glycoalkaloids bind cholesterol in cell membranes and can punch holes in them. In cultured human gut cells, solanine and chaconine increased permeability in a dose-dependent way, with a mixture of the two strongest. In intestinal tissue from mice genetically prone to colitis (interleukin-10–deficient), a 1:1 mixture disrupted the barrier, but it did not do so in normal control mice, and feeding glycoalkaloids at amounts comparable to a human diet worsened colon injury only in the predisposed animals.6 A follow-up study fed fried potato skins for 20 days to two mouse models of colitis and found higher inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17) and colon permeability, worse with high-glycoalkaloid potatoes.7 A 2023 gastroenterology review added the hypothesis that nightshade compounds may activate gut mast cells, though it described the human literature as limited.2

The leap from here to arthritis runs through the gut-joint axis: the idea that a more permeable gut lets bacterial products reach the bloodstream and stoke joint inflammation. That axis is a genuine research field, but each step from "fried potato skins inflame the bowel of colitis-prone mice" to "tomatoes inflame human knees" is unproven. Notably, other mouse work found the opposite: diets containing purple-fleshed potatoes reduced intestinal permeability and inflammatory interleukins in chemically induced colitis.17

2. Cholinesterase inhibition

Solanine and chaconine inhibit acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, the enzymes that break down the nerve signal acetylcholine. Some nightshade proponents argue this could cause muscle and joint aches. A review of the evidence found that typical human blood levels of glycoalkaloids are at least ten times lower than those needed to inhibit acetylcholinesterase in the laboratory, although butyrylcholinesterase was inhibited at concentrations similar to those after a normal serving of potatoes, and this slowed the breakdown of one anesthetic drug in rabbits.89 No study has linked this effect to joint symptoms. In a Dutch volunteer study, glycoalkaloids took more than 24 hours to clear, so they may build up with daily eating; but doses up to the recognised safety limit produced no systemic effects, and only one person at the highest dose vomited.10

3. The calcinosis idea

A third idea borrowed from veterinary medicine: some wild Solanum species, notably Solanum glaucophyllum, contain glycosides of active vitamin D (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and cause soft-tissue calcification in grazing cattle and sheep, a disease called enzootic calcinosis.5 Some early nightshade-arthritis writing suggested food nightshades might do something similar in people. There is no evidence that tomatoes, potatoes or peppers contain meaningful amounts of these compounds or cause calcification in humans.

Real toxicity: green and sprouted potatoes. Glycoalkaloid poisoning is real but comes from spoiled potatoes, not normal eating. In one well-documented outbreak, 78 schoolboys fell ill and 17 needed hospital care after eating potatoes from an old stored batch with high solanine and chaconine levels, with gastrointestinal, circulatory, neurological and skin symptoms.11 Discard green, sprouting or bitter-tasting potatoes, and store potatoes cool and in the dark.13 Strong

Where the nightshade-arthritis claim came from Contested

The modern idea is largely the work of Norman F. Childers, a horticulture professor rather than a physician, who became convinced that nightshades worsened his own joint symptoms. From the 1970s into the 1990s he promoted a "no-nightshade" diet and gathered questionnaires from people who tried it, publishing the results with co-author Michael Margoles.4 Many respondents reported improvement, and those reports remain the backbone of popular nightshade advice today.

The problem is the study design. Respondents chose to try the diet and chose to send back a form, there was no comparison group, no blinding, and no objective measures such as joint counts, blood tests or imaging. Arthritis naturally waxes and wanes, people who feel better are more likely to reply, and expectation alone can reduce pain. Surveys like this can generate a hypothesis worth testing, but they cannot show cause and effect.

What the evidence actually shows Contested

0published RCTs reporting results of nightshade elimination in arthritis (as of Oct 2026)
24%of RA registry patients said any food affected their symptoms
≤5%estimated share of rheumatic patients with confirmed food sensitivity on blinded challenge
3 of 16patients reacted on double-blind food challenge in one study

No direct trials yet. The first randomized trial of a nightshade elimination diet in rheumatoid arthritis was registered in Iran in 2023: 40 patients for 8 weeks, both groups receiving general anti-inflammatory advice, with one group also avoiding nightshades. Its authors noted the lack of any previous randomized trial. We could not find published results as of this review.12

What patients report. In a survey of 217 people in a U.S. rheumatoid arthritis registry, the 20 foods asked about included tomato, eggplant, white potatoes and bell or hot peppers. Overall, 24% said foods affected their symptoms (19% reported worsening), but the foods most often blamed were sugary soda and desserts; the foods most often credited with improvement were blueberries and spinach.13

What guideline bodies say. A Cochrane review of dietary interventions in rheumatoid arthritis concluded that the effects of elimination diets are uncertain because the trials were small and at moderate to high risk of bias, and noted higher drop-out and unintended weight loss in diet groups.14 The French Society for Rheumatology's 2022 recommendations support weight loss where needed, a Mediterranean-type diet and omega-3s, and advise against several restrictive approaches; nightshade avoidance is not among their recommendations.15 The Arthritis Foundation summarizes the debate as having "little scientific evidence on either side," notes that many doctors are skeptical, and suggests that anyone who suspects a sensitivity try a short elimination and slow reintroduction rather than permanent avoidance.1

The holistic and integrative view. Many integrative and functional-medicine practitioners include nightshades in autoimmune elimination protocols, arguing that group-average studies miss a reactive minority and pointing to the gut-barrier animal data above. That is a fair point about averages, and it is why an individual, structured test can be reasonable, but it is a hypothesis, not established fact.2 See our Foods to Avoid: nightshades section for the summary version of both views.

The case for keeping nightshades Emerging

The same foods carry compounds with anti-inflammatory potential, and some have been tested in people:

  • Tomatoes. In a trial of 106 overweight or obese women, 330 mL a day of tomato juice for 20 days lowered IL-8 and TNF-α compared with water.18 A meta-analysis of seven trials (465 people) found tomato intake reduced TNF-α but had no significant effect on CRP or IL-6.19
  • Pigmented potatoes. In a 6-week randomized study of healthy young men eating 150 g of potato a day, those eating yellow or purple potatoes tended to have lower IL-6, the purple group tended toward lower CRP, and both had less DNA oxidative damage than men eating white potatoes.16
  • Solanine itself, in a lab model. In a 2024 mouse model of osteoarthritis, α-solanine reduced cartilage breakdown and inflammatory signaling (NF-κB, IL-1β). This is an injected-compound animal study and says nothing about eating potatoes, but it shows the "solanine is inflammatory" story is not one-directional.20
  • Peppers. Capsaicin, the heat compound in chili, is used as a topical cream for osteoarthritis pain; at licensed doses it outperformed placebo and performed similarly to topical NSAIDs in a network meta-analysis.21
  • Dietary pattern. In a 12-week controlled study, people with rheumatoid arthritis who switched to a Mediterranean diet, which uses tomatoes and peppers liberally, had a fall in DAS28 disease activity of 0.56 and improved physical function, while the control group did not change.22 More on this in the anti-inflammatory diet evidence section.

Evidence verdict at a glance

Nightshade claims and how well they are supported
ClaimWhat the evidence showsGrade
Nightshades cause arthritisNo human evidence; based on uncontrolled surveysContested
Nightshades worsen symptoms in a sensitive subsetPlausible for some individuals; no published controlled trial resultsContested
Glycoalkaloids increase gut permeabilityShown in cells and colitis-prone mice, not normal mice or humansEmerging
Cholinesterase inhibition causes joint painEnzyme effect is real in the lab; no link to joint symptomsContested
Tomatoes and pigmented potatoes lower some inflammatory markersSmall human trials and one meta-analysis; mixed by markerEmerging
Mediterranean-style eating (nightshade-inclusive) helps RAControlled trials show modest improvementStrong
Topical capsaicin eases osteoarthritis painNetwork meta-analysis of randomized trialsStrong
Green or sprouted potatoes can cause poisoningDocumented outbreaks and toxicologyStrong

Who might reasonably try an elimination Contested

Given the weak evidence, an elimination is an optional personal experiment, not a treatment. It is most reasonable if:

  • you have noticed a repeated pattern of symptoms (joint pain, swelling, stiffness or gut upset) within a day or two of eating nightshades;
  • your arthritis has been diagnosed and is being treated, and your symptoms are relatively stable, so a change is easier to see;
  • you have gut symptoms or inflammatory bowel disease alongside joint symptoms, the setting where the glycoalkaloid research is most relevant (discuss with your gastroenterologist);2
  • you can keep the rest of your diet, sleep, exercise and medication steady for a month.
Think twice, or get professional support, if you: are already on a restricted diet or underweight; have a history of disordered eating; are pregnant or breastfeeding; rely on potatoes or tomatoes as a major food source; or are tempted to eliminate many food groups at once. Cutting several things together makes the result impossible to interpret and raises the risk of nutrient gaps.

A structured 3–4 week elimination and reintroduction Contested

The Arthritis Foundation suggests at least two weeks off, then reintroducing foods slowly with about three days between each;1 some integrative practitioners use 30–60 days (see our elimination diets overview). Three to four weeks is a practical middle ground that is long enough for day-to-day noise to average out.

  1. Baseline week. Keep eating normally and log pain (0–10), morning stiffness, swollen joints, sleep, stress and gut symptoms every day in the flare tracker. This shows how much your symptoms vary without any change.
  2. Eliminate for 3–4 weeks. Remove all nightshades, including hidden sources (paprika, chili, potato starch, ketchup, ashwagandha). Change nothing else: same medications, supplements, exercise and, as far as possible, the rest of your diet. Replace lost nutrients using the swap table below.
  3. Assess. Compare the last two weeks of elimination with your baseline. A meaningful change is one you can see in your log, not just a feeling.
  4. Reintroduce one food at a time. Eat a normal portion of a single nightshade (for example, tomato) once or twice on day one, then none for the next two to three days while you keep logging. Then move to the next food (potato, then peppers, then eggplant, then spices).
  5. Repeat any "positive." If a food seems to trigger symptoms, remove it again until you are back to baseline, then re-challenge once more. A real reaction should reproduce; a coincidence usually will not.
  6. Decide narrowly. If only one food reliably reproduces symptoms, limit that food, not the whole family. If nothing changed, you can go back to enjoying nightshades.
Make it fairer: If possible, have someone else prepare test meals so you do not know which day contains the nightshade (for example, a soup with or without blended red pepper). Blinding is how researchers separate genuine reactions from expectation.2324

What you lose by cutting nightshades Strong

Nightshades are among the main dietary sources of vitamin C, lycopene and potassium for many people. If you avoid them, even for a few weeks, replace what they provide. Values below are per 100 g from the USDA FoodData Central (SR Legacy) database.25

Key nutrients in common nightshades (per 100 g) and non-nightshade swaps
Food (per 100 g)Vitamin CPotassiumLycopeneFiber
Red bell pepper, raw128 mg211 mg02.1 g
Green bell pepper, raw80 mg175 mg01.7 g
Tomato, raw13.7 mg237 mg2,570 µg1.2 g
Tomato paste, no salt added21.9 mg1,010 mg28,800 µg4.1 g
Potato, baked, flesh and skin9.6 mg535 mg02.2 g
Eggplant, raw2.2 mg229 mg03.0 g
Goji berries, dried48.4 mg——13 g
Swap: sweet potato, baked (not a nightshade)19.6 mg475 mg03.3 g
  • Vitamin C: citrus fruit, kiwifruit, strawberries, broccoli, Brussels sprouts and cabbage.
  • Lycopene: watermelon, pink grapefruit and guava are the main non-nightshade sources.
  • Potassium: sweet potato, beans and lentils, leafy greens, bananas, squash and yogurt. If you have kidney disease or take medicines that raise potassium, ask your doctor or pharmacist before changing your intake.
  • Flavor: replace paprika and chili with black pepper, ginger, turmeric, garlic, horseradish, mustard or herbs.

How to tell food sensitivity from coincidence Emerging

People often notice what they ate before a bad day, and the brain is very good at finding patterns, including false ones. Research on "food-induced arthritis" illustrates the gap. In one rheumatology clinic, 30% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis believed foods worsened their symptoms, but when 16 patients underwent 19 double-blind, encapsulated food challenges, only 3 reacted, and the investigator estimated that probably no more than 5% of rheumatic patients have a genuine immunologic food sensitivity.23 A placebo-controlled study of individualized dietary manipulation in rheumatoid arthritis found real objective improvement in some "good responders," but also that part of the benefit was a placebo response.24 Both points are true: some people react, and many perceived reactions do not hold up under testing.

Signs it may be a genuine trigger

  • Symptoms reappear each time you reintroduce the food, at a similar delay
  • Symptoms settle each time you remove it
  • The change shows up in your diary scores, not only in memory
  • It still happens when you do not know which meal contained the food

Signs it is probably coincidence

  • Flares also come on days without nightshades
  • A single bad day after one meal, not reproduced on re-challenge
  • Other changes happened at the same time (stress, poor sleep, weather, a missed dose, a busy week, an infection)
  • Improvement that coincided with starting a new medication or a natural lull

The flare tracker lets you tag days with "nightshades" and other possible triggers and see whether pain scores actually differ. Correlation in a personal diary is still not proof, but it is far better than recall. If you want an objective check, ask your doctor whether repeating an inflammation marker such as CRP before and after the trial makes sense (see biomarkers).

When to see a doctor Strong

Seek urgent medical care if you have:
  • a suddenly hot, red, swollen, very painful joint, especially with fever or feeling unwell (possible infection or gout);
  • swelling of the lips, tongue or throat, wheezing, hives or faintness after eating (possible allergic reaction; nightshade allergy is uncommon but exists);2
  • vomiting, diarrhea, confusion or a slow or irregular heartbeat after eating green, sprouted or bitter potatoes.

Book a routine appointment if you:

  • have joint pain, swelling or morning stiffness lasting more than about six weeks without a diagnosis; early treatment of inflammatory arthritis protects joints, and diet changes should not delay it;
  • have persistent bowel symptoms (diarrhea, blood, weight loss) alongside joint pain, which can point to inflammatory bowel disease and related arthritis;
  • find yourself cutting out more and more foods, or losing weight unintentionally;
  • want to try an elimination while on medication, kidney treatment or a special diet.

For condition-specific guidance, see rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and gout.

Frequently asked questions

Do nightshades cause inflammation or arthritis?

There is no good human evidence that tomatoes, potatoes, peppers or eggplant cause arthritis or raise inflammation in most people. Glycoalkaloids such as solanine disrupted the gut lining in mice bred to develop bowel inflammation, but those findings have not been shown to translate to human joints. Small trials of tomato juice and pigmented potatoes actually found lower levels of some inflammatory markers. A minority of people report flares after eating nightshades, and the only way to judge that is a structured elimination and reintroduction. This is educational information, not medical advice.

Should I stop eating tomatoes if I have arthritis?

Not by default. The Arthritis Foundation notes there is little scientific evidence either way, and tomatoes are a core part of the Mediterranean-style diet, which has the best evidence of any eating pattern in rheumatoid arthritis. If you consistently notice symptoms after nightshades, a 3 to 4 week elimination followed by one-food-at-a-time reintroduction, ideally with a dietitian, is more informative than cutting them out for good.

Are sweet potatoes and black pepper nightshades?

No. Sweet potatoes belong to the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae) and black pepper to the pepper family (Piperaceae). Nightshades (Solanaceae) include tomatoes, white and red potatoes, eggplant, bell and chili peppers, paprika, cayenne, chili flakes, tomatillos, goji berries and the herb ashwagandha.

How long should a nightshade elimination trial last?

A practical window is 3 to 4 weeks of strict avoidance while keeping everything else, including medication, unchanged, then reintroducing one nightshade at a time with about three days between foods while logging symptoms. The Arthritis Foundation suggests as little as two weeks; some integrative practitioners use 30 to 60 days. If nothing changes after a fair trial, nightshades are unlikely to be your trigger.

Is solanine in potatoes dangerous?

Normal, properly stored potatoes are safe for most people. Solanine and chaconine concentrate in green, sprouted, damaged or bitter-tasting potatoes and in the peel, and eating a lot of them can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and, rarely, neurological symptoms. Throw away green or sprouting potatoes, or cut away green areas and sprouts generously.

References

  1. What You Should Know About Nightshades and Arthritis — Arthritis Foundation. arthritis.org
  2. Kuang R, Levinthal DJ, Ghaffari AA, Del Aguila de Rivers CR, Tansel A, Binion DG. Nightshade vegetables: a dietary trigger for worsening inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome? Dig Dis Sci. 2023;68(7):2853–2860. PubMed 37202602
  3. Friedman M. Potato glycoalkaloids and metabolites: roles in the plant and in the diet. J Agric Food Chem. 2006;54(23):8655–8681. PubMed 17090106
  4. Childers NF, Margoles MS. Relation of nightshades (Solanaceae) to arthritis. HortScience. 1998;33(3):505c. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.33.3.505c
  5. Machado M, Castro MB, Gimeno EJ, Barros SS, Riet-Correa F. Enzootic calcinosis in ruminants: a review. Toxicon. 2020;187:1–9. PubMed 32798504
  6. Patel B, Schutte R, Sporns P, Doyle J, Jewel L, Fedorak RN. Potato glycoalkaloids adversely affect intestinal permeability and aggravate inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2002;8(5):340–346. PubMed 12479649
  7. Iablokov V, Sydora BC, Foshaug R, et al. Naturally occurring glycoalkaloids in potatoes aggravate intestinal inflammation in two mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2010;55(11):3078–3085. PubMed 20198430
  8. Krasowski MD, McGehee DS, Moss J. Natural inhibitors of cholinesterases: implications for adverse drug reactions. Can J Anaesth. 1997;44(5 Pt 1):525–534. PubMed 9161749
  9. McGehee DS, Krasowski MD, Fung DL, Wilson B, Gronert GA, Moss J. Cholinesterase inhibition by potato glycoalkaloids slows mivacurium metabolism. Anesthesiology. 2000;93(2):510–519. PubMed 10910502
  10. Mensinga TT, Sips AJ, Rompelberg CJ, et al. Potato glycoalkaloids and adverse effects in humans: an ascending dose study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2005;41(1):66–72. PubMed 15649828
  11. McMillan M, Thompson JC. An outbreak of suspected solanine poisoning in schoolboys: examinations of criteria of solanine poisoning. Q J Med. 1979;48(190):227–243. PubMed 504549
  12. Golmohammadi A, Hosseinikia M, Sadeghi MK, Golampur D, Hosseinzadeh Z, Panahande SB. The evaluation of nightshade elimination diet (NED) on inflammatory and rheumatologic markers of rheumatoid arthritis patients: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2024;25(1):531. PubMed 39127701
  13. Tedeschi SK, Frits M, Cui J, et al. Diet and rheumatoid arthritis symptoms: survey results from a rheumatoid arthritis registry. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2017;69(12):1920–1925. PubMed 28217907
  14. Hagen KB, Byfuglien MG, Falzon L, Olsen SU, Smedslund G. Dietary interventions for rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(1):CD006400. PubMed 19160281
  15. Daien C, Czernichow S, Letarouilly JG, et al. Dietary recommendations of the French Society for Rheumatology for patients with chronic inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Joint Bone Spine. 2022;89(2):105319. PubMed 34902577
  16. Kaspar KL, Park JS, Brown CR, Mathison BD, Navarre DA, Chew BP. Pigmented potato consumption alters oxidative stress and inflammatory damage in men. J Nutr. 2011;141(1):108–111. PubMed 21106930
  17. Li S, Wang T, Wu B, et al. Anthocyanin-containing purple potatoes ameliorate DSS-induced colitis in mice. J Nutr Biochem. 2021;93:108616. PubMed 33705951
  18. Ghavipour M, Saedisomeolia A, Djalali M, et al. Tomato juice consumption reduces systemic inflammation in overweight and obese females. Br J Nutr. 2013;109(11):2031–2035. PubMed 23069270
  19. Widjaja G, Doewes RI, Rudiansyah M, et al. Effect of tomato consumption on inflammatory markers in health and disease status: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2022;50:93–100. PubMed 35871957
  20. Zhou J, Wu J, Fu F, et al. α-Solanine attenuates chondrocyte pyroptosis to improve osteoarthritis via suppressing NF-κB pathway. J Cell Mol Med. 2024;28(4):e18132. PubMed 38345195
  21. Persson MSM, Stocks J, Walsh DA, Doherty M, Zhang W. The relative efficacy of topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and capsaicin in osteoarthritis: a network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2018;26(12):1575–1582. PubMed 30172837
  22. Sköldstam L, Hagfors L, Johansson G. An experimental study of a Mediterranean diet intervention for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2003;62(3):208–214. PubMed 12594104
  23. Panush RS. Food induced ("allergic") arthritis: clinical and serologic studies. J Rheumatol. 1990;17(3):291–294. PubMed 2332849
  24. Darlington LG, Ramsey NW, Mansfield JR. Placebo-controlled, blind study of dietary manipulation therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet. 1986;1(8475):236–238. PubMed 2868255
  25. USDA FoodData Central, SR Legacy (FDC IDs 170108, 170427, 170457, 170459, 170093, 169228, 173032, 168483). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. fdc.nal.usda.gov
  26. Friedman M. Chemistry and anticarcinogenic mechanisms of glycoalkaloids produced by eggplants, potatoes, and tomatoes. J Agric Food Chem. 2015;63(13):3323–3337. PubMed 25821990
  27. Choi SH, Lee SH, Kim HJ, et al. Changes in free amino acid, phenolic, chlorophyll, carotenoid, and glycoalkaloid contents in tomatoes during 11 stages of growth and inhibition of cervical and lung human cancer cells by green tomato extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58(13):7547–7556. PubMed 20560602